Cognitive Psychology (PSYC 110) · Module 5 of 10
Memory Errors & Reconstruction
Why memory isn't a recording, and how that shapes what happens to eyewitnesses and vivid memories alike.
Memory as Reconstructive
- Memory is not a perfect recording but a reconstructive process — each time a memory is recalled, it can be subtly altered, influenced by current knowledge, expectations, and new information.
What does it mean to say that memory is "reconstructive" rather than "reproductive"?
Solution. It means memories aren't played back like an exact recording; instead, they're rebuilt each time they're recalled, using fragments of the original experience combined with expectations and general knowledge, which can introduce errors.
The Misinformation Effect
- The misinformation effect (Loftus) occurs when exposure to misleading information after an event distorts a person's memory of that original event.
In Loftus's classic studies, how did the specific wording of a question, e.g. "smashed" vs. "hit," affect participants' memory of a car accident video?
Solution. Participants who heard "smashed" reported higher estimated speeds and were more likely to falsely remember seeing broken glass, which wasn't present, compared to those who heard "hit," showing that misleading wording can distort memory of an event.
False Memories & Eyewitness Testimony
- Entirely false memories can be created through suggestive questioning or imagined events, and people can be highly confident in false memories, making confidence an unreliable indicator of accuracy.
- Eyewitness testimony, despite often being highly persuasive to juries, is subject to these same reconstructive errors, making it less reliable than commonly assumed.
Why can an eyewitness be very confident in their testimony and still be wrong?
Solution. Confidence and accuracy are not strongly linked in memory; because memory is reconstructive and susceptible to post-event suggestion and distortion, a witness can sincerely and confidently 'remember' details that are inaccurate or entirely fabricated.
Flashbulb Memories
- Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of the circumstances surrounding a highly emotional or surprising event, often felt to be extremely accurate.
- Despite feeling vivid and certain, research shows flashbulb memories are still subject to distortion and decay over time, just like ordinary memories.
Why might someone be very surprised to learn that their vivid, detailed "flashbulb memory" of a significant event contains inaccuracies?
Solution. Flashbulb memories feel exceptionally vivid and certain, creating a strong subjective sense of accuracy, but research shows they are reconstructed and can decay or become distorted over time just like other memories, despite that strong feeling of certainty.
Check yourself
2 of this module's 5 quiz questions. Pick your answers, then check them in the app, with an explanation for every question.
1. What does it mean that memory is "reconstructive"?
2. What is the misinformation effect?