Cognitive Psychology (PSYC 110) · Module 4 of 10
Retrieval & Forgetting
What makes a memory findable again, and the competing explanations for why we lose access to it.
Retrieval Cues & Encoding Specificity
- The encoding specificity principle (Tulving) states that retrieval is most effective when cues present at retrieval match those present during encoding.
- Context-dependent memory (matching physical environment) and state-dependent memory (matching internal/physiological state) are specific examples of encoding specificity.
Why might a diver recall word lists better when tested underwater, the same environment where they learned the list, rather than on land?
Solution. This illustrates context-dependent memory — the underwater environment provides retrieval cues that match the encoding context, making retrieval more effective than in a mismatched environment.
The Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
- The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon is the frustrating experience of being unable to retrieve a word you're confident you know, often accompanied by partial information, like the first letter or number of syllables.
What does the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon suggest about how memory retrieval works?
Solution. It suggests that memory retrieval isn't all-or-nothing — a memory trace can be partially activated without being fully retrievable, showing retrieval is a graded process.
Theories of Forgetting: Decay & Interference
- Decay theory proposes that memory traces fade over time simply due to disuse; interference theory proposes that forgetting occurs because other memories compete with or disrupt the target memory.
- Proactive interference: older memories disrupt new learning. Retroactive interference: newer learning disrupts recall of older memories.
A student struggles to remember their new locker combination because their old one keeps coming to mind instead. What type of interference is this?
Solution. Proactive interference — an older memory (the old locker combination) is disrupting the retrieval of newer information (the new combination).
The Forgetting Curve
- Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve shows that forgetting is fastest immediately after learning and levels off over time, with much of the initial information lost within the first day or two without any review.
- Spaced repetition — reviewing material at increasing intervals — combats the forgetting curve far more effectively than cramming (massed practice).
According to Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve, when does most forgetting of newly learned material tend to occur?
Solution. Most forgetting happens rapidly and early — within the first day or two after learning — with the rate of forgetting slowing down considerably after that if no review occurs.
Check yourself
2 of this module's 5 quiz questions. Pick your answers, then check them in the app, with an explanation for every question.
1. What does the encoding specificity principle state?
2. What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?